Aggiornamento monografico
La profilassi dell’infezione neonatale da streptococco di gruppo B
PROPHYLAXIS OF NEONATAL GROUP B STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTION
ALBERTO BERARDI, KATIA ROSSI, CHIARA BUSSETTI, FABRIZIO FERRARI
Dipartimento di Scienze Ostetriche, Ginecologiche e Pediatriche, Sezione di Neonatologia,Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia
Novembre 2002 - pagg. 571 -578
Abstract
Group B Streptococcus is the leading cause of vertically transmitted neonatal bacterial infections.
The consequence of early and late-onset infections can be fatal diseases or severe
neurological sequelae, when central nervous system is involved. Many efforts have been made
on prevention, but the infection is not totally controlled. Bacteriological screening of all
mothers between the 35th and the 37th week of gestation, followed by maternal intrapartum
chemoprophylaxis (by penicillin or ampicillin) of colonised women represents today the most
effective strategy to prevent the disease.
Parole chiave
Suggerite dall'AI
Classificazione MeSH
Bibliografia
Group B streptococcal disease in the United
States, 1990: report from a multistate active
surveillance system. CDC Surveillance Summaries.
MMWR 1992 nov;41(No SS-6):25-32.
2. Baker CJ, Edwards MS. Group B streptococcal infection. In Remington J, Klein JO (eds). Infectious diseases of the fetus and newborn infant. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co, 4th ed., 1995:980-1054.
3. Mohle-Boetani J, Schuchat A, Plikaytis BD, et al. Comparison of prevention strategies for neonatal group B streptococcal infection: a population-based economic analysis. J Am Med Assoc 1993;270:1442-48.
4. Baker CJ, Rench MA, Kaspen DL. Response to type III polysaccharide in women whose infant have had invasive group B streptococcal infection. N Eng J Med 1990;322:1857-60.
5. Newton ER, Clark M. Group B streptococcus and preterm rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol 1988;77:198-202.
6. Adams WG, Kinney JS, Schuchat A, et al. Outbreak of early onset group B streptococcal sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12: 565- 70.
7. Anthony BF, Eisendstadt RT, Carter J, et al. Genital and intestinal carriage of group B streptococci during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1981;143:761-6.
8. Anthony BF, Okada DM, Hobel CJ. Epidemiology of group B Streptococcus: longitudinal observations during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1978;137:524-30.
9. Siegel JD. Prophylaxis for neonatal group B Streptococcus infection. Semin Perinatol 1998; 22:33-4.
10. American Academy of Pediatrics. Guidelines for prevention of group B streptococcal infection by chemoprophylaxis. Pediatrics 1992; 90:775-8.
11. Dillon HC, Gray E, Pass MA, et al. Anorectal and vaginal carriage of group B streptococci during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1982;145:794-9.
12. Demi M, Padovani EM, Zanardo V. Le infezioni neonatali da streptococco beta-emolitico di gruppo B. Ped Med Chir (Med Surg Ped) 1995;17:93-4.
13. Schuchat A. Epidemiology of group B streptococcal disease in the United States: shifting paradigms. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998;11: 497-513.
14. Anthony BF, Okada DM. The emergence of group B Streptococci in infections of the newborn infant. Ann. Rev. Med. 1977;28:355- 69.
15. Ferrieri P, Cleary PP, Seeds AE. Epidemiology of group-B streptococcal carriage in pregnant women and newborn infants. J Med Microbiol 1977;10:103-7.
16. Pass MA, Gray MB, Khare S, et al. Prospective studies of group B streptococcal infections in infants.J Pediatr 1979:95:437-43.
17. Baker CJ. Early onset group B streptococcal disease. J Pediatr 1978; 93:124-5.
18. Lannering B, Larsson NE, Rojas J, et al. Early onset group B streptococcal disease. Seven year experience and clinical scoring system. Acta Paediatr Scand 1983;72:597-602.
19. Weisman LE, Stoll BJ, Cruess DF, et al. Early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: a current assessment. J Pediatr 1992; 121: 428- 433.
20. Berardi A, Mordini B, Cattani S, et al. La profilassi dell’infezione neonatale da streptococco di gruppo B: l’esperienza di Modena. Atti del Congresso della Società Italiana di Neonatologia (Sezione Emiliano-Romagnola) Aprile 2001.
21. Baker CJ, Edwards MS. Group B streptococcal infections: perinatal impact and prevention methods. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988;549:193-202.
22. American Academy of Pediatrics and COID/COFN. Revised guidelines for prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal (GBS) infection. Pediatrics 1997;99:489-96.
23. Schuchat A, Deaver-Robinson K, Plikaytis BD, Zangwill K et al. Multistate case-control study of maternal risk factors for neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Ped Infect Dis J 1994;13:623-9.
24. Ohlsson A, Myhr TL. Intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of perinatal group B streptococcal infections: a critical review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170: 910-7.
25. Siegel JD, Cushion NB. Prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease: another look at single-dose penicillin at birth. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:692-8.
26. Pyati SP, Pildes RS, Jacobs NM, Ramamurthy RS, et al. Penicillin in infants weighing two kilograms or less with early-onset group B streptococcal disease. N Eng J Med 1983; 308:1383-9.
27. Boyer KM, Gadzala CA, Burd LI, et al. Selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of neonatal group B streptococcal early-onset disease. I. Epidemiologic rationale. J Infect Dis 1983;148:795-801.
28. Baker CJ. Group B streptococcal infections. Clin Perinatol 1997;24 (1):59-70.
29. Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Strategies for chemoprophylaxis of GBS early-onset infections. Antibiot Chemoter 1985;35:267-80.
30. Yagupusky P, Menegus MA, Powell KR. The changing spectrum of group B streptococcal disease in infants: an eleven- year experience in a tertiary care hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991;10: 801-8.
31. Bromberger P, Lawrence JM, Braun D, et al. The influence of intrapartum antibiotics on the clinical spectrumof early-onset group B streptococcal infection in term infants. Pediatrics 2000;106(2):244-50.
32. Caramia G, Freddara R, Catalani MP. L’infezione da Streptococco di Gruppo B (GBS) nella madre e nel neonato. Bollettino Società Italiana Medicina Perinatale 1996;1:6-17.
33. Isaacs, Moxon ER. Handbook of neonatal infections. A practical guide. London: WB Saunders, 1999.
34. Berardi A, Mordini B, Cattani S, et al. Solo asfissia intrapartum? Quando la sepsi streptococcica simula altre condizioni. Atti del Congresso della Società Italiana di Neonatologia (Sezione Emiliano-Romagnola) Aprile 2001.
35. Schuchat A, Zywicki SS, Dinsmoor MJ, et al. Risk factors and opportunity for prevention of early-onset neonatal sepsis: a multicenter case-control study. Pediatrics 2000;105:21-6.
36. Baker CJ, Kasper LD. Correlation of maternal antibody deficiency with susceptibility to neonatal group B streptococcal infections. N Eng J Med 1976;294:753-6.
37. Baker CJ. Comunicazione personale. Dicembre 2001.
38. Easmon CSF, Hastings MJg, Clare AJ, et al. Nosocomial transmission of group B Streptococci. BMJ 1981;283:459-61.
39. Dillon HC, Khare S, Gray BM. Group B streptococcal carriage and disease: a 6 year prospective study. J Pediatr 1987;110: 31-6.
40. Green PA, Kavindra VS, Murray BE, et al. Recurrent group B streptococcal infections in infants: clinical and microbiological aspects. J Pediatr 1994;125:931-8.
41. Fernandez M, Rench MA, Albanyan EA, et al. Failure of rifampin to eradicate group B streptococcal colonization in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001;20: 371-6.
42. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Prevision of early-onset group B streptococcal disease in newborn. The College; Washington, 1996:1-8. Committee Opinion N° 173.
43. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Risk factors for early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: estimation of odds ratio by critical literature review. Pediatrics 1999;103(e77):1- 14.
44. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of perinatal Group B Streptococcal Disease-United States: 1993-1995. MMWR 1997;46(21):473-76.
45. Regan JA, Klebanoff MA, Nugent RP, et al. VIP Study Group. Colonization with group B Streptococci in pregnancy and adverse outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1354- 60.
46. Badri MS, Zawaneh S, Cruz AC. Rectal colonization with group B Streptococcus: relation to vaginal colonization of pregnant women. J Infect Dis 1977;135:308-12.
47. Philipson EH, Palermino DA, Robinson A. Enhanced antenatal detection of group B streptococcus colonization. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:437-9.
48. Boyer KM, Gadzala CA, Kelly PD, et al. Selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of neonatal group B streptococcal early-onset disease. II . Predictive value of prenatal cultures. J Infect Dis 1983;148:802-9.
49. Yancey MK, Schuchat A, Brown LK, et al. The accuracy of late antenatal screening cultures in predicting genital group B streptococcal colonization at delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88:811-5.
50. Baker CJ. Inadequacy of rapid immunoassays for intrapartumdetection of Group B streptococcal carriers. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 88:51-5.
51. Bergeron MG, Danbing KE, Menard C, et al. Rapid detection of group B streptococci in pregnant women at delivery. N Eng J Med 2000;343:175-9.
52. Agence Nationale d’Accréditation et d’Evaluation en Santé. Prevention anténatal du risque infectieux bactérien néonatal précoce. Recomandation pour la pratique clinique. Septembre 2001.www.anaes.fr/anaes/Public a t i o n s . n s f / w E d i t i o n R A _ L I L F - 52WJ3U?OpenDocument&Retour=wSpecialites? OpenView.
53. Hickman ME, Rench Ma, Ferrieri P, et al. Changing epidemiology of Group B streptococcal colonization. Pediatrics 1999;104:203-9.
54. Anthony BF, Okada DM, Hobel CJ. Epidemiology of the group B Streptococcus: maternal and nosocomial sources for infant acquisitions. J Pediatr 1979;95:431-6.
55. De Cueto M, Sanchez MJ, Sampedro A, et al. Timing of intrapartum ampicillin and prevention of vertical transmission of group B streptococcus. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91:112-4.
56. Yancey MK, Duff P, Kubilis P, et al. Risk factors for neonatal sepsis. Obstet Gnecol 1996;87:188-94.
57. Hall RT, Barnes W, Krishnan L, et al. Antibiotic treatment of parturient women colonized with group B Streptococci. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;124:630-4.
58. Gardner SE, Yow MD, Leeds LJ, et al. Failure of penicillin to eradicate group B streptococcal colonization in the pregnant women: a couple study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;135:1062-5.
59. Paredes A, Wong P, Yow MD. Failure of penicillin to eradicate the carrier state of group B Streptococcus in infants. J Pediatr 1976;89: 191-3.
60. Thomsen AC. Antibiotic elimination of group B streptococci in urine in prevention of preterm labour. Lancet 1987;8:591-3.
61. Glantz JC, Kedley KE. Concepts and controbersies in the management of group B Streptococcus during pregnancy. Birth 1998; 25:45-53.
62. Morales WJ, Lim DV, Walsh AF. Prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal sepsis by the use of a rapid screening test and selective intrapartum prophylaxis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;155:979-83.
63. Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Prevention of earlyonset neonatal group B streptococcal disease with selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1665-9.
64. Tuppurainen N, Hallman M. Prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal disease: intrapartum detection and chemoprophylaxis of heavily colonized parturients. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:853-7.
65. Rouse DJ, Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP, et al. Strategies for the prevention of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal sepsis: a decision analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83:483- 94.
66. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Group B streptococcal infections in pregnancy. ACOG Tehcnical Bulletin 1992; 170:1-5.
67. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a public health perspective. MMWR 1996;45(RR-7):1-24.
68. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Preventing early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: strategy development using decision analysis. Pediatrics 1999;103:e76:1-12.
69. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Antimicrobial prevention of early group B streptococcal sepsis: estimates of risk reduction based on a critical literature review. Pediatrics 1999;103(e78):1-13.
70. Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Alternative algorithms for prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:973-9.
71. Gotoff SP, Boyer KM. Prevention of earlyonset neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Pediatrics 1997; 99:866-8.
72. Rosenstein N, Schuchat A, and Neonatal Group B Study Group. Opportunities for prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a multistate surveillance analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:901-6.
73. Halliday E. Universal maternal screening for neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Lancet 2000;356:1407-8.
74. Smaill F. Intrapartum antibiotics for Group B streptococcal colonization (Cochrane review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software, 2000.
75. Schrag SJ, Zywicki S, Farley MM, et al. Group B streptococcal disease in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. N Eng J Med 2000;15-20.
76. Siegel JD, McCracken GH, Threlkeld N, et al. Single-dose penicillin prophylaxis against neonatal group B streptococcal infections: a controlled trial in 18.738 newborn infants. N Eng J Med 1980;303:769-75.
77. Patel DM, Rhodes PG, Le Blanc MH, et al. Of postnatal penicillin prophylaxis in prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal infection. Acta Paediatr 1999;88:874-9.
78. Wedgwood JF, Carlin EB, Benjamin BL, et al. Penicillin at birth can help prevent earlyonset group B streptococcal disease. Pediatrics 1997;9:651-2.
79. Alkalay AL, Brunell PA, Greenspon JS, et al. Management of neonates born to mothers with group B Streptococccus colonization. J Perinatol 1996;16:470-7.
80. Wiswell TE, Stoll BJ, Tuggle JM. Management of asymptomatic, term gestation neonates born to mothers treated with intrapartum antibiotics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990;9:826-31.
81. Consiglio Direttivo della SIMP. Proposta: Linee-guida per la prevenzione delle infezioni perinatali da streptococco beta-emolitico di gruppo B. Bollettino Società Italiana Medicina Perinatale 1996;1:21-4.
2. Baker CJ, Edwards MS. Group B streptococcal infection. In Remington J, Klein JO (eds). Infectious diseases of the fetus and newborn infant. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co, 4th ed., 1995:980-1054.
3. Mohle-Boetani J, Schuchat A, Plikaytis BD, et al. Comparison of prevention strategies for neonatal group B streptococcal infection: a population-based economic analysis. J Am Med Assoc 1993;270:1442-48.
4. Baker CJ, Rench MA, Kaspen DL. Response to type III polysaccharide in women whose infant have had invasive group B streptococcal infection. N Eng J Med 1990;322:1857-60.
5. Newton ER, Clark M. Group B streptococcus and preterm rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol 1988;77:198-202.
6. Adams WG, Kinney JS, Schuchat A, et al. Outbreak of early onset group B streptococcal sepsis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1993;12: 565- 70.
7. Anthony BF, Eisendstadt RT, Carter J, et al. Genital and intestinal carriage of group B streptococci during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1981;143:761-6.
8. Anthony BF, Okada DM, Hobel CJ. Epidemiology of group B Streptococcus: longitudinal observations during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1978;137:524-30.
9. Siegel JD. Prophylaxis for neonatal group B Streptococcus infection. Semin Perinatol 1998; 22:33-4.
10. American Academy of Pediatrics. Guidelines for prevention of group B streptococcal infection by chemoprophylaxis. Pediatrics 1992; 90:775-8.
11. Dillon HC, Gray E, Pass MA, et al. Anorectal and vaginal carriage of group B streptococci during pregnancy. J Infect Dis 1982;145:794-9.
12. Demi M, Padovani EM, Zanardo V. Le infezioni neonatali da streptococco beta-emolitico di gruppo B. Ped Med Chir (Med Surg Ped) 1995;17:93-4.
13. Schuchat A. Epidemiology of group B streptococcal disease in the United States: shifting paradigms. Clin Microbiol Rev 1998;11: 497-513.
14. Anthony BF, Okada DM. The emergence of group B Streptococci in infections of the newborn infant. Ann. Rev. Med. 1977;28:355- 69.
15. Ferrieri P, Cleary PP, Seeds AE. Epidemiology of group-B streptococcal carriage in pregnant women and newborn infants. J Med Microbiol 1977;10:103-7.
16. Pass MA, Gray MB, Khare S, et al. Prospective studies of group B streptococcal infections in infants.J Pediatr 1979:95:437-43.
17. Baker CJ. Early onset group B streptococcal disease. J Pediatr 1978; 93:124-5.
18. Lannering B, Larsson NE, Rojas J, et al. Early onset group B streptococcal disease. Seven year experience and clinical scoring system. Acta Paediatr Scand 1983;72:597-602.
19. Weisman LE, Stoll BJ, Cruess DF, et al. Early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: a current assessment. J Pediatr 1992; 121: 428- 433.
20. Berardi A, Mordini B, Cattani S, et al. La profilassi dell’infezione neonatale da streptococco di gruppo B: l’esperienza di Modena. Atti del Congresso della Società Italiana di Neonatologia (Sezione Emiliano-Romagnola) Aprile 2001.
21. Baker CJ, Edwards MS. Group B streptococcal infections: perinatal impact and prevention methods. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988;549:193-202.
22. American Academy of Pediatrics and COID/COFN. Revised guidelines for prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal (GBS) infection. Pediatrics 1997;99:489-96.
23. Schuchat A, Deaver-Robinson K, Plikaytis BD, Zangwill K et al. Multistate case-control study of maternal risk factors for neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Ped Infect Dis J 1994;13:623-9.
24. Ohlsson A, Myhr TL. Intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of perinatal group B streptococcal infections: a critical review of randomized controlled trials. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;170: 910-7.
25. Siegel JD, Cushion NB. Prevention of early-onset group B streptococcal disease: another look at single-dose penicillin at birth. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:692-8.
26. Pyati SP, Pildes RS, Jacobs NM, Ramamurthy RS, et al. Penicillin in infants weighing two kilograms or less with early-onset group B streptococcal disease. N Eng J Med 1983; 308:1383-9.
27. Boyer KM, Gadzala CA, Burd LI, et al. Selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of neonatal group B streptococcal early-onset disease. I. Epidemiologic rationale. J Infect Dis 1983;148:795-801.
28. Baker CJ. Group B streptococcal infections. Clin Perinatol 1997;24 (1):59-70.
29. Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Strategies for chemoprophylaxis of GBS early-onset infections. Antibiot Chemoter 1985;35:267-80.
30. Yagupusky P, Menegus MA, Powell KR. The changing spectrum of group B streptococcal disease in infants: an eleven- year experience in a tertiary care hospital. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1991;10: 801-8.
31. Bromberger P, Lawrence JM, Braun D, et al. The influence of intrapartum antibiotics on the clinical spectrumof early-onset group B streptococcal infection in term infants. Pediatrics 2000;106(2):244-50.
32. Caramia G, Freddara R, Catalani MP. L’infezione da Streptococco di Gruppo B (GBS) nella madre e nel neonato. Bollettino Società Italiana Medicina Perinatale 1996;1:6-17.
33. Isaacs, Moxon ER. Handbook of neonatal infections. A practical guide. London: WB Saunders, 1999.
34. Berardi A, Mordini B, Cattani S, et al. Solo asfissia intrapartum? Quando la sepsi streptococcica simula altre condizioni. Atti del Congresso della Società Italiana di Neonatologia (Sezione Emiliano-Romagnola) Aprile 2001.
35. Schuchat A, Zywicki SS, Dinsmoor MJ, et al. Risk factors and opportunity for prevention of early-onset neonatal sepsis: a multicenter case-control study. Pediatrics 2000;105:21-6.
36. Baker CJ, Kasper LD. Correlation of maternal antibody deficiency with susceptibility to neonatal group B streptococcal infections. N Eng J Med 1976;294:753-6.
37. Baker CJ. Comunicazione personale. Dicembre 2001.
38. Easmon CSF, Hastings MJg, Clare AJ, et al. Nosocomial transmission of group B Streptococci. BMJ 1981;283:459-61.
39. Dillon HC, Khare S, Gray BM. Group B streptococcal carriage and disease: a 6 year prospective study. J Pediatr 1987;110: 31-6.
40. Green PA, Kavindra VS, Murray BE, et al. Recurrent group B streptococcal infections in infants: clinical and microbiological aspects. J Pediatr 1994;125:931-8.
41. Fernandez M, Rench MA, Albanyan EA, et al. Failure of rifampin to eradicate group B streptococcal colonization in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001;20: 371-6.
42. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Prevision of early-onset group B streptococcal disease in newborn. The College; Washington, 1996:1-8. Committee Opinion N° 173.
43. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Risk factors for early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: estimation of odds ratio by critical literature review. Pediatrics 1999;103(e77):1- 14.
44. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of perinatal Group B Streptococcal Disease-United States: 1993-1995. MMWR 1997;46(21):473-76.
45. Regan JA, Klebanoff MA, Nugent RP, et al. VIP Study Group. Colonization with group B Streptococci in pregnancy and adverse outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1354- 60.
46. Badri MS, Zawaneh S, Cruz AC. Rectal colonization with group B Streptococcus: relation to vaginal colonization of pregnant women. J Infect Dis 1977;135:308-12.
47. Philipson EH, Palermino DA, Robinson A. Enhanced antenatal detection of group B streptococcus colonization. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:437-9.
48. Boyer KM, Gadzala CA, Kelly PD, et al. Selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis of neonatal group B streptococcal early-onset disease. II . Predictive value of prenatal cultures. J Infect Dis 1983;148:802-9.
49. Yancey MK, Schuchat A, Brown LK, et al. The accuracy of late antenatal screening cultures in predicting genital group B streptococcal colonization at delivery. Obstet Gynecol 1996;88:811-5.
50. Baker CJ. Inadequacy of rapid immunoassays for intrapartumdetection of Group B streptococcal carriers. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 88:51-5.
51. Bergeron MG, Danbing KE, Menard C, et al. Rapid detection of group B streptococci in pregnant women at delivery. N Eng J Med 2000;343:175-9.
52. Agence Nationale d’Accréditation et d’Evaluation en Santé. Prevention anténatal du risque infectieux bactérien néonatal précoce. Recomandation pour la pratique clinique. Septembre 2001.www.anaes.fr/anaes/Public a t i o n s . n s f / w E d i t i o n R A _ L I L F - 52WJ3U?OpenDocument&Retour=wSpecialites? OpenView.
53. Hickman ME, Rench Ma, Ferrieri P, et al. Changing epidemiology of Group B streptococcal colonization. Pediatrics 1999;104:203-9.
54. Anthony BF, Okada DM, Hobel CJ. Epidemiology of the group B Streptococcus: maternal and nosocomial sources for infant acquisitions. J Pediatr 1979;95:431-6.
55. De Cueto M, Sanchez MJ, Sampedro A, et al. Timing of intrapartum ampicillin and prevention of vertical transmission of group B streptococcus. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91:112-4.
56. Yancey MK, Duff P, Kubilis P, et al. Risk factors for neonatal sepsis. Obstet Gnecol 1996;87:188-94.
57. Hall RT, Barnes W, Krishnan L, et al. Antibiotic treatment of parturient women colonized with group B Streptococci. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1976;124:630-4.
58. Gardner SE, Yow MD, Leeds LJ, et al. Failure of penicillin to eradicate group B streptococcal colonization in the pregnant women: a couple study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979;135:1062-5.
59. Paredes A, Wong P, Yow MD. Failure of penicillin to eradicate the carrier state of group B Streptococcus in infants. J Pediatr 1976;89: 191-3.
60. Thomsen AC. Antibiotic elimination of group B streptococci in urine in prevention of preterm labour. Lancet 1987;8:591-3.
61. Glantz JC, Kedley KE. Concepts and controbersies in the management of group B Streptococcus during pregnancy. Birth 1998; 25:45-53.
62. Morales WJ, Lim DV, Walsh AF. Prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal sepsis by the use of a rapid screening test and selective intrapartum prophylaxis. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986;155:979-83.
63. Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Prevention of earlyonset neonatal group B streptococcal disease with selective intrapartum chemoprophylaxis. N Engl J Med 1986;314:1665-9.
64. Tuppurainen N, Hallman M. Prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal disease: intrapartum detection and chemoprophylaxis of heavily colonized parturients. Obstet Gynecol 1989;73:853-7.
65. Rouse DJ, Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP, et al. Strategies for the prevention of early-onset neonatal group B streptococcal sepsis: a decision analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83:483- 94.
66. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Group B streptococcal infections in pregnancy. ACOG Tehcnical Bulletin 1992; 170:1-5.
67. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a public health perspective. MMWR 1996;45(RR-7):1-24.
68. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Preventing early-onset group B streptococcal sepsis: strategy development using decision analysis. Pediatrics 1999;103:e76:1-12.
69. Benitz WE, Gould JB, Druzin ML. Antimicrobial prevention of early group B streptococcal sepsis: estimates of risk reduction based on a critical literature review. Pediatrics 1999;103(e78):1-13.
70. Boyer KM, Gotoff SP. Alternative algorithms for prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1998;17:973-9.
71. Gotoff SP, Boyer KM. Prevention of earlyonset neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Pediatrics 1997; 99:866-8.
72. Rosenstein N, Schuchat A, and Neonatal Group B Study Group. Opportunities for prevention of perinatal group B streptococcal disease: a multistate surveillance analysis. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:901-6.
73. Halliday E. Universal maternal screening for neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Lancet 2000;356:1407-8.
74. Smaill F. Intrapartum antibiotics for Group B streptococcal colonization (Cochrane review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 2. Oxford: Update Software, 2000.
75. Schrag SJ, Zywicki S, Farley MM, et al. Group B streptococcal disease in the era of intrapartum antibiotic prophylaxis. N Eng J Med 2000;15-20.
76. Siegel JD, McCracken GH, Threlkeld N, et al. Single-dose penicillin prophylaxis against neonatal group B streptococcal infections: a controlled trial in 18.738 newborn infants. N Eng J Med 1980;303:769-75.
77. Patel DM, Rhodes PG, Le Blanc MH, et al. Of postnatal penicillin prophylaxis in prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal infection. Acta Paediatr 1999;88:874-9.
78. Wedgwood JF, Carlin EB, Benjamin BL, et al. Penicillin at birth can help prevent earlyonset group B streptococcal disease. Pediatrics 1997;9:651-2.
79. Alkalay AL, Brunell PA, Greenspon JS, et al. Management of neonates born to mothers with group B Streptococccus colonization. J Perinatol 1996;16:470-7.
80. Wiswell TE, Stoll BJ, Tuggle JM. Management of asymptomatic, term gestation neonates born to mothers treated with intrapartum antibiotics. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1990;9:826-31.
81. Consiglio Direttivo della SIMP. Proposta: Linee-guida per la prevenzione delle infezioni perinatali da streptococco beta-emolitico di gruppo B. Bollettino Società Italiana Medicina Perinatale 1996;1:21-4.