Articolo speciale
Il danno cerebrale minimo, ovvero il disturbo maturativo dell'encefalo
MINIMAL BRAIN DAMAGE AND CEREBRAL INTRAUTERINE DEVELOPMENT: AN OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
FRANCO PANIZON
Professore Emerito, Dipartimento di Scienze della Riproduzione e dello Sviluppo, Università di Trieste
Dicembre 2006 - pagg. 647 -655
Abstract
The fetal period is a very sensitive epoch in human brain development, as any traumatic event may result in a permanent damage. A preterm birth is usually followed by a slowing down in growth, defined as post-natal malnutrition. This may lead to a reduced head circumference, which is the strongest predictor of suboptimal neurodevelopment in the long-term. In comparison to at term infants, the prematurely born may experience reduced IQ, learning difficulties and attention deficit disorders. Post-natal malnutrition may represent a generalisable model of neurological damage. Some of the external causes of the latter have been identified and include maternal smoking, heavy alcohol consumption, psycho-social stress in the mother, environmental polluting agents. All these factors may interact with genetic variants. Post-natal nutrition interventions may be of value in ameliorating neurological developmental problems in premature babies.
Parole chiave
Suggerite dall'AI
Classificazione MeSH
Bibliografia
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• DeFries JC, Fulker DW, LaBuda MC. Evidence for a genetic aetiology in reading disabilities in twins. Nature 1987;329:537-9.
• DeFries JC, Johnson RC, Kuse AR, et al. Familial resemblance for specific cognitive abilities. Behav Genet 1979;9:23-43.
• Gillis JJ, Gilger JW, Pennington BF, DeFries JC. Attention deficit disorder in reading-disabled twins; evidence for a genetic etiology. J Abnorm Child Psychol 1992;20:303-15.
• Goodman R, Stevenson J. A twin study on hyperactivity. II. The etiological role of genes, family relationship, and perinatal adversity. J Child Psychol Psychiatr 1989;30:691-709.
• Levy F, Hay DA, McStephen M, Wood C, Waldman I. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. A category or a continuum? Genetic analysis of a large-scale twin study. J Amer Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatr 1997;6:734-44. Sviluppo normale del SNC
• Billiards SS, Haynes RL, Folkerth RD, et al. Development of microglia in cerebral white matter of human fetus and infant. J Comp Neurol 2006:497:199-208.
• Herlenius E, Lagercrantz H. Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators during early human development. Early Hum Dev 2001;65: 21-37.
• Preissl H, Lovery CL, Eswaran H. Fetal magnetoencephalography; viewieng the developing brain in utero. Int Rev Neurobiol 2005;68: 1-23. Alterazioni anatomo-patologiche legate a prematurità e difetti maturativi
• Inder TE, Warfield SK, Wang H, Huooi PS, Volpe JJ. Abnormal cerebral structure is present at term in premature infants. Pediatrics 2005;115:286-94.
• Limperopoulos C, Soul JS, Gauvreau K, et al. Late gestational cerebellar growth is rapid and impeded by premature birth. Pediatrics 2005;115:688-95.
• Mewes AU, Huppi PS, Als H, et al. Regional brain development in serial magnetic resonance imaging of low-risk preterm infants. Pediatrics 2006;118:23-33. Malnutrizione prenatale e prematurità
• Brandt A, Sticker EL, Lentze MJ. Catch-up growth of head circumference of very low birth weight, small for gestational age preterm infants, and mental development to adulthood. J Pediatr 2003;142:463-8.
• Clark RH, Thomas P, Peabody J. Extrauterine growth restriction remains a serious problem in prematurely born neonates. Pediatrics 2003;11:986-90.
• Cooke RW, Foulder-Hughes L. Growth impairment in the very preterm and cognitive and motor performances at 7 years. Arch Dis Child 2003;88:462-7.
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• Hack M, Breslau N, Aram D, et al. The effect of very low birth weight and social risk on neurocognitive abilities at school age. J Dev Behav Ped 1992;13:412-20.
• Hack M, Weissman B, Borawski-Clark E. Catch-up growth during childhood among very low-birth weight children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996;150:1122-9.
• Kulseng S, Jennekens-Schinkel A, Naess P, et al. Very-low-birthweight and at term smallfor- gestational-age: attention revisited. Acta Paediatr 2006;95:224-30.
• Latal-Hajnal B, von Siebenthal K, Kovari H, et al. Postnatal growth in VLBW infants: significant association with neurodevelopmental outcome. J Pediatr 2003;143:145-6.
• Marlow N, Wolke D, Bracewell MA, et al. Neurologic and developmental disability at six years of age after extremely preterm birth. N Engl J Med 2005;352:9-19.
• Peterson J, Taylor HG, Minich N, et al. Subnormal head circumference in very low birth children: neonatal correlates and school-age consequences. Early Hum Dev 2006;82:325- 34.
• Ronalds GA, De Stavola BL, Leon DA. The cognitive cost of being a twin: evidence from comparison with families in the Aberdeen children of the 1950s cohort study. BMJ 2005;331: 1306.
• Wolf MJ, Koldewijn K, Beelen A, Smit B, Hedlund R, de Groot IJ. Neurobehavioral and developmental profile of very low birthweight preterm infants in early infancy. Acta Paediatr 2002;91:930-8. Altre cause di danno prenatale
• Austin MP, Leader LR, Reilly N. Prenatal stress, the hypotalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and fetal and infant neurobehaviour. Early Hum Dev 2005;81:667-78.
• Chiriboga CA. Fetal effects. Neurol Clin 1993;11:707-28.
• Clandinin MT, Van Aerde JE, Merkel KL, et al. Growth and development of preterm infants fed infant formulas containing docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid. J Pediatr 2005;146:461-8.
• Crawford MA, Costeloe K, Ghebremeskel K, Phylactos A, Skirvin L, Stacey F. Are deficits of arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids responsible for the neural and vascular complications of preterm babies? Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:1032S-1041S.
• Gibson CS, MacLennan AH, Goldwater PN, et al. Neurotropic viruses and cerebral palsy: population-based case-control study. BMJ 2006;332:76-80.
• Helland B, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acid during pregnancy and lactation augments children’s IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics 2003;111:e39-44.
• Huisman M, Koopman-Esseboom C, Fidler V, et al. Perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins and its effect on neonatal neurological development. Early Hum Dev 1995;41(2):111-27.
• Laplante DP, Barr RG, Brunet A, et al. Stress during pregnancy affects general intellectual and language functioning in human toddlers. Pediatr Res 2004;56:400-10.
• Myers GJ, Marsh DO, Davidson PW, et al. Main neurodevelopmental study of Seychellois children following in utero exposure to methylmercury from a maternal fish diet: outcome at six months. Neurotoxicology 1995: 16;653-64.
• Potter SM, Zelazo PR, Stack DM, Papageorgiou AN. Adverse effects of fetal cocaine exposure on neonatal auditory information processing. Pediatrics 2000;105:E40.
• Rees S, Inder T. Fetal and neonatal origins of altered brain development. Early Hum Dev 2005;81:753-61.
• Sakamoto M, Kubota M, Liu XJ, Murata K, Nakai K, Satoh H. Maternal and fetal mercury and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as a risk and benefit of fish consumption to fetus. Environ Sci Technol 2004;15:3860-3.
• Sidddappa AM, Georgieff MK, Wewerka S, Worwa C, Nelson CA, Deregnier RA. Iron deficiency alters auditory recognition memory in newborn infants of diabetic mothers. Pediatr Res 2004;55:1034-41.
• Slotkin TA. Fetal nicotine or cocaine exposure: which one is worse? J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1998;285:931-45.
• Tamura T, Goldenberg RL, Hou J, et al. Cord serum ferritin concentration and mental and psychomotor development of children at five years of age. J Pediatr 2002;140:165-70.
• Wadhwa PD, Sandman CA, Garite TJ. The neurobiology of stress in human pregnancy: implications for prematurity and development of the fetal central nervous system. Prog Brain Res 2001;133;131-42.